When The Air Itself Becomes A Shield

Introduction

Directed-energy weapons do not operate in a vacuum. In air defence, the atmosphere becomes part of the engagement itself. The central weather-related distinction between lasers and high-power microwaves is that lasers must deliver a tightly focused beam of light through the air to a precise point on a target, while microwaves use longer-wavelength radio-frequency energy that generally tolerates atmospheric disruption more effectively. As a result, rain, fog, dust, smoke, sea spray and turbulence can dramatically alter laser performance, whereas microwave systems are often less sensitive to those same conditions, though they face their own propagation, attenuation and safety constraints. The practical consequence is that a laser’s advertised range on a clear day is rarely its guaranteed combat range in all environments. [Defence Science Review+2ResearchGate]com.plpdf 216776 135052Defence Science ReviewDEFENCE SCIENCE REVIEWJanuary 17, 2026 — by A Karkadakattil · 2026 · Cited by 1 — Objectives: This review aims to e…

When the Air Itself Becomes a Shield

The atmosphere is not empty space. It contains water vapour, aerosols, dust, pollution, temperature gradients and constantly moving pockets of air. Every one of these factors can interfere with energy transmission.

For laser weapons, the challenge is fundamental. A high-energy laser must keep enough power concentrated on a small spot for long enough to heat, melt or structurally weaken part of the target. Any atmospheric process that scatters, absorbs or distorts the beam reduces the energy arriving at that spot. Researchers studying military laser propagation consistently identify atmospheric attenuation, turbulence and thermal effects as among the most important operational constraints. [Defence Science Review+2ResearchGate]com.plpdf 216776 135052Defence Science ReviewDEFENCE SCIENCE REVIEWJanuary 17, 2026 — by A Karkadakattil · 2026 · Cited by 1 — Objectives: This review aims to e…

Microwave systems face atmospheric effects too, but the mechanisms differ. Because microwave wavelengths are much longer than laser wavelengths, many atmospheric particles that strongly affect optical beams have less influence on microwave propagation. The result is often greater tolerance to haze, smoke and moderate weather disruption, although heavy rainfall, atmospheric absorption and propagation losses can still reduce effectiveness. [DRDO Publications+2K-State Libraries]publicationsdrdo.inThis structured narrative review analyses how High-Power Microwave (HPM) Directed Energy Weapons. (DEWs) may shape modern warfare…Read…

The key operational lesson is that weather is not merely a background condition. It can become a decisive factor in weapon selection.

How Scattering and Turbulence Affect Laser Energy

Fog, Rain and Aerosols

Water droplets are especially troublesome for lasers. Fog, clouds, mist and heavy rain introduce large numbers of particles that scatter light away from the intended target. Dust, smoke, sea spray and battlefield obscurants can produce similar effects.

The problem is not simply that the beam becomes less accurate. Every scattered photon represents energy that no longer contributes to heating the target. A laser that can disable a drone quickly in clear conditions may require much longer dwell times in degraded visibility, or may fail to achieve the necessary energy density altogether. Studies of high-energy laser propagation repeatedly identify aerosol scattering and water-droplet interactions as major range-limiting mechanisms. [ETH Zurich Files+2deps.org]files.ethz.chETH Zurich Files The Airborne LaserETH Zurich FilesThe Airborne LaserMay 29, 2007 — 12 Nov 1996 — Even clear air attenuates, or reduces, the power of the laser beams. The m…Published: May 29, 2007

This is one reason naval laser programmes attract particular attention from atmospheric researchers. Marine environments combine humidity, sea spray, temperature gradients and turbulent air layers that can complicate beam propagation even when visibility appears acceptable to the human eye. [American Meteorological Society Journals+2Laser Wars]journals.ametsoc.orgAmerican Meteorological Society JournalsClimate Change: Anticipated Effects on High-Energy Laser…by ST Fiorino · 2011 · Cited by 10 —…

Heat Shimmer and Atmospheric Turbulence

Even apparently clear air can degrade a laser beam.

Air of different temperatures has slightly different refractive properties. As sunlight heats terrain, runways, rooftops or ocean surfaces, pockets of warm and cool air mix together. These changing refractive conditions bend and distort laser beams, creating effects similar to the visual shimmer seen above a hot road.

For a high-energy laser, turbulence can enlarge the beam spot, reduce intensity on target and complicate precision tracking. The atmosphere effectively acts as a constantly changing optical lens. Military laser programmes therefore invest heavily in adaptive optics, wavefront sensing and atmospheric compensation technologies designed to correct beam distortions in real time. [ResearchGate+2ResearchGate]researchgate.netmitigated through feedback from wavefront and atmospheric sensors to the adaptive…Read more…

Thermal Blooming

An additional laser-specific problem is thermal blooming. As the beam travels, absorbed energy heats the air through which it passes. The heated air changes density and refractive properties, causing the beam to spread and lose focus.

In effect, the laser can partially create its own propagation problem. Thermal blooming becomes more significant as power levels rise and atmospheric absorption increases. It has been recognised for decades as one of the classic limits on long-range laser weapon performance in the atmosphere. [ndupress.ndu.edu+2ResearchGate]ndupress.ndu.eduEffects of Directed Energy Weaponsof Directed Energy Weapons - NDU PressJun 16, 2017 — 1–1 Temperature and State of a 50 gram Ice Cube vs Energy. Deposited… Microwaves…

Why Clear-Test Range Is Not a Fixed Combat Radius

Laser weapon demonstrations often occur under carefully selected conditions. Such tests are valuable, but they can unintentionally create the impression that range is a fixed number.

In reality, atmospheric transmission is highly variable. A laser engagement envelope may expand dramatically in dry, stable air and contract significantly during fog, dust storms, rain or intense turbulence. The same weapon can therefore exhibit different effective ranges across seasons, climates and times of day. Defence researchers studying operational laser deployment repeatedly emphasise that environmental conditions strongly influence achievable power on target. [Defence Science Review+2ResearchGate]com.plpdf 216776 135052Defence Science ReviewDEFENCE SCIENCE REVIEWJanuary 17, 2026 — by A Karkadakattil · 2026 · Cited by 1 — Objectives: This review aims to e…

This distinction matters for air-defence planning. A missile carries its destructive mechanism to the target. A laser must transmit destructive energy through the atmosphere for the entire engagement path. Consequently, commanders cannot assume that a published test range represents a guaranteed all-weather defensive perimeter. [Drill & Defense+2ETH Zurich Files]drillanddefense.comWeather and atmosphere can reduce effectiveness. Fog, rain, smoke, dust, sea spray, and…Read more…

The practical result is that many military concepts treat laser range as a weather-dependent variable rather than a constant performance figure.

Why Microwaves Usually Tolerate Weather Better

High-power microwave systems operate in a different part of the electromagnetic spectrum and therefore interact differently with the atmosphere.

Because microwave wavelengths are much larger than typical fog droplets, dust particles and smoke particles, these obstacles generally produce less scattering than they do for lasers. This gives microwave systems a reputation for greater all-weather robustness, particularly in counter-drone roles. Several military and technical reviews identify lower sensitivity to atmospheric disturbances as a major comparative advantage of microwave weapons. [K-State Libraries+2DRDO Publications]kstatelibraries.pressbooks.pubK-State Libraries11DE Weapons & Microwavesby C Carter · 2022 — Microwave weapons are far less sensitive to atmospheric disturbances than lasers, making them…

However, “less sensitive” does not mean immune.

Heavy rainfall can attenuate microwave signals, atmospheric absorption can reduce energy delivery, and propagation losses still increase with distance. Some analyses also note that severe atmospheric turbulence and weather effects can influence microwave effectiveness, although typically to a lesser degree than comparable optical systems. [Security and Defence+2ResearchGate]securityanddefence.plTo evaluate the heating phenomenon surrounding the HMP system, a…Read more…

Microwave weapons also face a separate operational challenge: their broader-area effects can create concerns about friendly electronics, nearby communications systems and other unintended electromagnetic interactions. In other words, the atmosphere may be less of a barrier, but the wider electromagnetic environment becomes more important. [GAO]gao.govgao 23 106717Science & Tech Spotlight: Directed Energy Weapons25 May 2023 — Directed energy weapons—such as lasers—use energy fired at the speed of…Published: May 2023

Which Environments Favour Each Defensive Layer?

The comparison is not simply “lasers in good weather, microwaves in bad weather.” Real deployments are more nuanced.

Environments that generally favour lasers:

Environments that often favour microwave systems:

Mixed or challenging environments:

These are precisely the circumstances in which many defence planners increasingly view lasers and microwaves as complementary layers rather than competing replacements.

The Historical Trend: From Weather Vulnerability to Layered Defence

The history of directed-energy development has repeatedly reinforced the importance of atmospheric effects. Early high-energy laser programmes often revealed that atmospheric propagation was as difficult a challenge as generating the beam itself. Decades of work on adaptive optics, atmospheric sensing and beam control have improved performance, but have not eliminated weather dependence. [Defense Intelligence Agency+2ndupress.ndu.edu]dia.milAs a result, large.Read moreDefense Intelligence AgencyState of the Art and Evolution of High-Energy Laser Weapons31 Mar 2010 — Space offers the ideal environment fo…

At the same time, growing interest in microwave counter-drone systems reflects recognition that some air-defence problems benefit from a technology that is generally less constrained by optical visibility. Recent military analyses increasingly describe high-energy lasers and high-power microwaves as complementary tools whose value changes with target type, atmospheric conditions and operational environment. [ResearchGate+2DRDO Publications]researchgate.netThe Strategic Role of High-Power Microwave Directed…Mar 6, 2026 — The paper compares HPM DEWs with high-energy laser (HEL)…

In practice, the atmosphere rarely determines whether directed-energy weapons can be used. Instead, it often determines which directed-energy layer offers the more reliable option at a particular place, time and weather condition.

Amazon book picks

Further Reading

Books and field guides related to When The Air Itself Becomes A Shield. Use these as the next step if you want deeper reading beyond the article.

Book

The Kill Chain

By Christian Brose

Places directed-energy systems within the broader context of modern air defense, drones, and future warfare.

See on Amazon

Book

Introduction to Radar Systems

By Merrill Ivan Skolnik

Helps readers understand atmospheric impacts on electromagnetic systems more broadly.

See on Amazon

Book

Introduction to Modern Ew Systems

By Andrea De Martino

First published 2012. Subjects: Electronics in military engineering, Electronic countermeasures, Contre-mesures électroniques, TECHNOLOGY...

See on Amazon

Book

Understanding lasers

By Jeff Hecht

First published 1988. Subjects: Lasers.

See on Amazon

Browse more on Amazon: The Kill Chain to Radar Systems books to Modern Ew Systems books

As an Amazon Associate I earn from qualifying purchases.

eBay marketplace picks

Marketplace Samples

Example marketplace items related to this page. Use the search link to explore similar finds on eBay.

Shop location

Using USA USA USAUKCanadaAustraliaIreland

Example eBay listing

3D Printed 1/72 Russian S-500 air defense missile system Unpainted Kit Model NEW

Search eBay.co.uk: air defense missile model

Browse similar on eBay.co.uk

Example eBay listing

S-300 Russian Air Defense Missile Radar Vehicle 1:72 Unassembled Model Ornaments

Search eBay.co.uk: air defense missile model

Browse similar on eBay.co.uk

Example eBay listing

S-300 Russian Air Defense Missile Radar Vehicle 1:72 Simulation Military Model O

Search eBay.co.uk: air defense missile model

Browse similar on eBay.co.uk

Example eBay listing

1/72 Sam-6 Air Defense Missile Model Czech Republic

Search eBay.co.uk: air defense missile model

Browse similar on eBay.co.uk

Browse more on eBay.co.uk

Example items shown for inspiration; availability and pricing can change. Branchoria may earn a commission if you purchase through outbound eBay links.

Endnotes

1. Source: researchgate.net
   Link: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307435846_Atmospheric_Propagation_of_High-Energy_Laser_Beams
   Source snippet

   (PDF) Atmospheric Propagation of High-Energy Laser BeamsLaser sources are widely used for exploring the atmosphere, in particular, its ga...

2. Source: deps.org
   Title: JV2N1P5 Sprangle
   Link: https://www.deps.org/DEPSpages/JDE/JV2N1P5-Sprangle.pdf
   Source snippet

   95 - Optimum Wavelength and Power for Efficient Laser...by P Sprangle · 2006 · Cited by 81 — The theoretical/numerical model used in thi...

3. Source: researchgate.net
   Link: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/403676537_Laser-Based_Directed_Energy_Weapons_Technological_Capabilities_Material_Interaction_and_Strategic_Deployment_Pathways
   Source snippet

   mitigated through feedback from wavefront and atmospheric sensors to the adaptive...Read more...

4. Source: ndupress.ndu.edu
   Title: Effects of Directed Energy Weapons
   Link: https://ndupress.ndu.edu/portals/68/Documents/Books/CTBSP-Exports/Effects-of-Directed-Energy-Weapons.pdf?ver=2017-06-16-125220-170
   Source snippet

   of Directed Energy Weapons - NDU PressJun 16, 2017 — 1–1 Temperature and State of a 50 gram Ice Cube vs Energy. Deposited... Microwaves...

5. Source: researchgate.net
   Link: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334070738_High-Power_Microwave_Energy_as_Weapon
   Source snippet

   ResearchGate(PDF) High-Power Microwave Energy as WeaponParticle beams and lasers have difficulties in propagating. Antenna-directed micro...

6. Source: researchgate.net
   Link: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/401596360_Shaping_Modern_Warfare_The_Strategic_Role_of_High-Power_Microwave_Directed_Energy_Weapons_in_Multi-Domain_Operations
   Source snippet

   The Strategic Role of High-Power Microwave Directed...Mar 6, 2026 — The paper compares HPM DEWs with high-energy laser (HEL)...

7. Source: researchgate.net
   Link: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/395867364_The_Weaknesses_of_the_High-Power_Microwave_Weapon
   Source snippet

   Clear weather meteorological effects on propagation at...Read more...

8. Source: gao.gov
   Title: gao 23 106717
   Link: https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-23-106717
   Source snippet

   Science & Tech Spotlight: Directed Energy Weapons25 May 2023 — Directed energy weapons—such as lasers—use energy fired at the speed of...

   Published: May 2023

9. Source: deps.org
   Title: USUKsymp22Short Course
   Link: https://www.deps.org/DEPSpages/USUKsymp22ShortCourse.html
   Source snippet

   UK/US DE Workshop Short Courses18 Jul 2022 — This course will provide an introduction to RF Directed Energy weapons, also known as High P...

10. Source: ndupress.ndu.edu
    Title: directed energy weapons are real and disruptive
    Link: https://ndupress.ndu.edu/Media/News/News-Article-View/Article/2053280/directed-energy-weapons-are-real-and-disruptive/
    Source snippet

    And DisruptiveJan 9, 2020 — A DE weapon is a system using DE primarily as a direct means to disable, damage or destroy adversary equipmen...

11. Source: defencesciencereview.com.pl
    Title: pdf 216776 135052
    Link: https://www.defencesciencereview.com.pl/pdf-216776-135052?filename=Laser-Based-[Directed-Ener
    Source snippet

    Defence Science ReviewDEFENCE SCIENCE REVIEWJanuary 17, 2026 — by A Karkadakattil · 2026 · Cited by 1 — Objectives: This review aims to e...

    Published: January 17, 2026

12. Source: kstatelibraries.pressbooks.pub
    Title: K-State Libraries11
    Link: https://kstatelibraries.pressbooks.pub/drone-delivery/chapter/11-microwaves/
    Source snippet

    DE Weapons & Microwavesby C Carter · 2022 — Microwave weapons are far less sensitive to atmospheric disturbances than lasers, making them...

13. Source: dia.mil
    Title: As a result, large.Read more
    Link: https://www.dia.mil/FOIA/FOIA-Electronic-Reading-Room/FileId/237622/
    Source snippet

    Defense Intelligence AgencyState of the Art and Evolution of High-Energy Laser Weapons31 Mar 2010 — Space offers the ideal environment fo...

14. Source: publicationsdrdo.in
    Link: https://publicationsdrdo.in/index.php/dsj/article/download/21114/8787/92344
    Source snippet

    This structured narrative review analyses how High-Power Microwave (HPM) Directed Energy Weapons. (DEWs) may shape modern warfare...Read...

15. Source: securityanddefence.pl
    Link: https://securityanddefence.pl/Analysis-of-the-power-of-drones-and-limitations-of-the-anti-drone-solutions-on-the%2C208347%2C0%2C2.html
    Source snippet

    To evaluate the heating phenomenon surrounding the HMP system, a...Read more...

16. Source: files.ethz.ch
    Title: ETH Zurich Files The Airborne Laser
    Link: https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/31415/forden.pdf
    Source snippet

    ETH Zurich FilesThe Airborne LaserMay 29, 2007 — 12 Nov 1996 — Even clear air attenuates, or reduces, the power of the laser beams. The m...

    Published: May 29, 2007

17. Source: journals.ametsoc.org
    Link: https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/apme/50/1/2010jamc2482.1.pdf
    Source snippet

    American Meteorological Society JournalsClimate Change: Anticipated Effects on High-Energy Laser...by ST Fiorino · 2011 · Cited by 10 —...

18. Source: laserwars.net
    Title: [navy laser]({{ ‘laser-lineage/’ | relative_url }}) weapons challenges atmosphere fog
    Link: https://www.laserwars.net/p/navy-laser-weapons-challenges-atmosphere-fog
    Source snippet

    Fog of War: The Biggest Challenge for Naval Laser Weapons22 May 2025 — Naval laser weapons require line of sight and atmospheric stabilit...

    Published: May 2025

19. Source: drillanddefense.com
    Link: https://drillanddefense.com/laser-weapons-the-new-layer-in-modern-air-defense/
    Source snippet

    Weather and atmosphere can reduce effectiveness. Fog, rain, smoke, dust, sea spray, and...Read more...

20. Source: lockheedmartin.com
    Link: https://www.lockheedmartin.com/en-us/capabilities/directed-energy.html
    Source snippet

    Directed Energy | Lockheed MartinExperience the potential of our laser weapons and directed energy weapon technologies, providing afforda...

21. Source: Wikipedia
    Title: Laser weapon
    Link: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_weapon
    Source snippet

    Laser weaponA laser weapon is a type of directed-energy weapon (DEW) that uses lasers to inflict damage. Laser weapons are of two type...

Additional References

1. Source: arxiv.org
   Link: https://arxiv.org/abs/2510.16495
   Source snippet

   Performance Evaluation of High Power Microwave Systems Against UAVs A Probabilistic Antenna Propagation Framework with Sensitivity A...

2. Source: onr.navy.mil
   Link: https://www.onr.navy.mil/organization/departments/code-35/division-353/directed-energy-weapons-uspl-and-atmospheric-characterization
   Source snippet

   Office of Naval ResearchUltra-Short Pulse Laser and Atmospheric CharacterizationDirected energy weapons (DEWs) are defined as electromagn...

3. Source: reddit.com
   Link: https://www.reddit.com/r/traveller/comments/1awelhv/unexpected_weapon_limitations/
   Source snippet

   Unexpected weapon limitations: r/travellerYou can't shoot a laser through clouds or heavy rain. In other words, if you can't clearly see...

4. Source: onr.navy.mil
   Link: https://www.onr.navy.mil/organization/departments/code-35/division-353/directed-energy-weapons-cdew-and-high-energy-lasers
   Source snippet

   Directed Energy Weapons and High Energy LasersNavy DEWs include systems that use high-energy lasers (HEL) that emit photons, and high-pow...

5. Source: facebook.com
   Title: russian media have reported on chinas high power microwave system hurricane 3000
   Link: https://www.facebook.com/ChinaGlobalTVNetwork/posts/russian-media-have-reported-on-chinas-high-power-microwave-system-hurricane-3000/1553287439498056/
   Source snippet

   Russian media have reported on China's high-power...Russian media have reported on China's high-power microwave system, Hurricane 3000...

6. Source: dsiac.dtic.mil
   Link: https://dsiac.dtic.mil/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Webinar-HPM-DEWs-Tatum-1.pdf
   Source snippet

   HIT Compared to Kinetic Energy Weapons and Lasers. Provides PLAUSIBLE DENIABILITY. WORK AGAINST ELECTRONIC. WEAPONS, Sensors, and.Read more...

7. Source: c4isrnet.com
   Title: cloudy and a chance of rain need not sideline high energy lasers
   Link: https://www.c4isrnet.com/opinion/2018/02/26/cloudy-and-a-chance-of-rain-need-not-sideline-high-energy-lasers/
   Source snippet

   Cloudy and a chance of rain need not sideline high-energy...Feb 26, 2018 — As such, while certain effects of a laser weapon are negative...

8. Source: unidir.org
   Link: https://unidir.org/directed-energy-weapons-a-new-look-at-an-old-technology/
   Source snippet

   Directed Energy Weapons: A New Look at an 'Old'...May 12, 2022 — Weather, such as rain or clouds, can also impact the effectiveness of l...

   Published: May 12, 2022

9. Source: electronicsforu.com
   Title: directed energy weapons high power microwaves
   Link: https://www.electronicsforu.com/market-verticals/directed-energy-weapons-high-power-microwaves
   Source snippet

   Directed Energy Weapons: High Power MicrowavesOct 4, 2016 — Unlike high-energy laser weapons (to be described later), which are clear-wea...

10. Source: epirusinc.com
    Link: https://www.epirusinc.com/electronic-warfare
    Source snippet

    N) semiconductors for unmatched counter-electronics effects.Read more...